Nvq 3 Work

1/1 There are a number of factors that can impact individuals with sensory loss. People with sensory loss can miss out on important information that people with out sensory loss take in day to day with out even realising. Communication is an area in which people with sensory loss have many issues. they may also find it difficult to feed themselves, dressing, mobility, hobbies and interests can have a major negative impact on their lives. They could also feel scared and alone.There can also be positive factors that could impact on individuals lives, increased help, aids for support and a good support team could give them a better outlook on life. 1/2 Societal attitudes and beliefs can impact individuals with sensory loss in quite a negative way because people in society can be very judgmental towards people with disabilities, and put them in a group of people with below average intelligence and assume they can’t do or think the same way as other people without disabilities can. People in society can also be very prejudice and ignorant and think they are better than people with sensory loss, also thinking it gives them the right to make fun at them and making life difficult in the process. Although not all people think the same way there are many other people in society that are very open towards individuals with disabilities and sensory loss and can be very helpful and kind, this can have a positive impact on people’s lives. 1, 3,There are a range of factors that societal attitudes and beliefs impact on service provisions, discrimination is one of the biggest problem in today’s society , people with sensory loss are treated differently, and there a lot of barriers that need to be overcome, service provision is a term used to describe a wide range of activities, including the provision of assistive devices, rehabilitation services, occupational therapy and health services. 2/1 sight loss-clear speach Large print Braille earing loss hearing aid paper pen comunication boards sign language flipcharts Make sure you have the person's attention before trying to communicate with them Gently touching the top of hand arm Identify yourself clearly Check your best position to communicate Avoid background noise Speak clearly and a little slower, but don't shout Keep your face visible – don't smoke, eat, or cover your mouth Use gestures and facial expressions to support what you are saying If necessary repet yourself 2/2 /3 3/1 diabeties infections operations age i can say resident going blind if he or she falling over things high blood pressure 3/2 congenital sensory loss when someone is borh with sight hearing problems might be due to mother contracting an infection such as rubella acquied sensory loss is sight or hearing loss what coming with time in life due to diffrent factors 3/3 356,000 deafblind ppl in uk 4/1 Find lighting either: too bright or too dim. Holding books or reading material close to faceSquinting or tiltin g the head to see. Difficulty in recognizing people. Change in personal appearance. Moving about cautiously. Bumping into objects. Acting confused or disoriented. listen tv radio on high volume avoiding talking in groups dont undestand what ppl saying 4/2 get eyes hearing tested get doctor to check for any problems like high blood pressuer ask doctor to check is ear bloock with wax avoid loud noises find hearing support services 4/3

Is the Claim of White Skin Privilege a Myth

Is the Claim of White Skin Privilege a myth? As a whole, minorities from all religions, races, and sexualities have reached numerous high points in life. These high points have resulted in the establishment and entitlement to minorities having the same rights as whites. However, the right of blacks as in being equal is always up for debate. Statistics show and prove that for every dollar a white household brings in, a black household only brings in 61 cents. Some people like to say that the white household is more skilled or has a higher education, however, this is not the case in most situations.These facts can be accurately traced back to the issue of discrimination against blacks. Most people agree that this type of discrimination is seen frequently but never spoken of. Why are there different meanings of this word for different races, if the foundation of our country established as everyone is equal? What do these rights actually mean, and if most people pay these rights absolute ly no attention at all, why are these rights even in place? Focusing on the topics of white benefits, white denial, and a personal opinion, in this essay will I will explain to the reader the question, â€Å"Is the claim of white skin privilege a myth? Referring to the author from the first passage, Paul Kivel, â€Å" The reality of privilege is so embedded within the dominant group that to recognize and admit its reality is alien to most whites. † As a whole, white people in the United States do not recognize the fact that they have different right to this day. They just realize the effects that most benefit themselves. The benefits that white people receive are coveted by numerous people all over the globe. Many people around the world sacrifice their customs, beliefs, and languages, just so they can have these benefits.It has been proven that whites have thrived in many parts of life just for exploiting and manipulating people of color. Why would someone risk their own cu lture in order to obtain these privileges, is a question a lot of people ask? The only answer that makes any sense at all is for the people to be economically successful. Many people of color face difficult challenges and disadvantages over whites, simply because the person is white. With people of color having disadvantages, there comes, insults, discrimination, violence, harassment and economic and cultural exploitation.The majority of people of color have experienced at least one of these disadvantages in their lives, but most have grown to expect these disadvantages. Just because of these discriminations, a lot of colored people avoid a lot of situations at work and at school, and they are more likely to have fingers pointed at them for robberies, or have their car searched for some bogus reason. When a topic of race is brought up however, whites are quick to speak on it. Many dramatic emotions and feelings flow through the minds of white people as they are forced to talk about the existence of racism in today’s society.Black people are consistently accused of using or pulling the â€Å"race card†, but is something expected to be an outcome of it? According to Tom Wise, the black person’s reward is actually non-existent. Actually it is normally the white person who pulls a race card and gets a positive outcome from it. According to whites, the race card, â€Å"is something people of color play so as to distract the rest of us, or to gain sympathy. † However, studies show that people of color are actually normally scared to use the card in fear that they may be attacked, or simply ignored altogether.Wise accurately addresses the problem that people of color deal with. â€Å"Simply put: whites in every generation have thought there was no real problem with racism, irrespective of the evidence, and in every generation we have been wrong. † Over the course of many years, whites have actually become immune to the claims of rac ial inequality; they say that they have found cures for people of color and their problems. These cures are Drapetomania and Victim Syndrome. Drapetomania originated as a so-called â€Å"cure† to explain why slaves escaped from their loving masters.Masters were told that keeping a slave in a child state of mind, that he or she would in turn be loyal to there master. However whites also found a way to ignore the state of mind that the slaves were in, they stamp them with an illness and took it ay to far. This stamp is revealed over a century later in Washington State in a school district. People of color were falsely accused of having disorders, and also accused of being extremely paranoid. The actual name created for their â€Å"illness† is called the â€Å"victimization syndrome. Whites are quick to accuse blacks of victim mentality, due to the fact that they were being inspired by the Civil Rights Movement, and for the simple fact that they â€Å"want† to be considered targets for harassment. Whites to this day still refuse to discuss the situation and persistently deny the fact that it still exists even to this day. This could just be because whites themselves have never been through such an experience in their lives, and continue to cover it up with their own excuses and ignorance. I am white, however I do not agree with some of the racial situations that still exist in our society today.I as a white American am faced with a lot of the same challenges as a black individual, however I do strongly believe that everyone in this country from birth has equal opportunity. This is only because public education is free to everyone in America. Do I think that people of color experience difficulties in finding jobs, or moving up the cultural, corporate, or economical ladder? No, in this case I do not. Why you might ask? Well let me tell you this, every single one of my bosses at work are black, and how did they get there?They worked their way u p the ladder. However, two of the managers I work for graduated from FAMU. So I do not agree with the statements that all blacks are faced with discrimination. However I do admit that some do experience discrimination, but I must say in those situations the person of color needs to keep their head high and prove that person wrong. Many people go far in life with self-motivation, without self-motivation not much can be accomplished, but use times when you are criticized or discriminated against to push you further.Tell yourself that no that is not how it is and aim to prove that person wrong and do not stop until you get there. I do believe that this country still needs to change I would love to see everyone in this country do well and everyone should strive to succeed. There are many opinions of this situation out there, and I do not believe that in my lifetime that this situation will be resolved but we cannot focus on the past we must move forward and strive for excellence.

Department for culture Essay

In the United Kingdom sport is provided throughout many different ways and is funded through government Lottery and private sources. Maria Miller who works through a DCMS select committee will. There are National governing bodies and another type of organisation called â€Å"QUANGOS†. According to BBC (2010) a quango is an organisation that is funded by taxpayers, but not controlled directly by central government. These are run away from the government In order to give a service to the public. This will be across a range of sports and can range from providing funding for teams to building new facilities in the area. Sports England is the organisation that will be written about in this assignment. According to (Sewell 1999:151) â€Å"many SDO’s and deliverers of sport development programmes more prosaically have identified a lack of funding as the major obstacle to achieving equality of opportunity† this view on sport in England has drastically changed. Sports England is in control of the direction that sport is going in England they have the support from the government. â€Å"Local authorities are the single biggest supporter of community sport and currently investing over ? 1bn every year through sport development activities, facilities and supporting local sporting clubs† (Sports England 2012) this shows how Sports England have the financial power in order to make change and back there projects to become successful and bring out result in participation levels. Sport England look to provide opportunity’s through them now recognising over 100 Sporting Organisations. Which consist of Archery GB, UK Athletics, British Cycling, The Football Association and England Netball . They provide support and funding to them in order to deliver sports to their audience. Through backing sporting organisations Sport England believe they will be â€Å"Improving health and community safety, increasing skills, employment and economic growth, and providing new opportunities for children and young people† (Sports England 2012) this aim of Sport England can be achieve from them building facilities in their area and making sure the clubs are provided with a solid financial backing. Sport England focus on increasing sports participation â€Å"Every one of the 4,000 secondary schools in England will be offered a community sport club on its site† (Sport England 2012) through them doing this will be able to have children involved in sport at an early age â€Å"Creating a sporting habit for life† (Sports England 2012) if Sports England can achieve their goal of creating all the facility’s. Then making them available to the schools they will help increase a young nations view on fitness and provide the schools with a chance to help promote this. â€Å"Young People continue to appear to have strong beliefs in the value of activity† (Sports England 2005, Sport in the UK pg. 11) this statement from Sport England provides what they want to achieve. This will be achieved through sports England’s funding to be drafted â€Å"We will invest over ? 450 million in work with national governing bodies of sport (NGBs). Young people (14-25 years old) will benefit from 60% of this investment. † This means that sports England will be investing ? 270 into keeping this age group involved in sports so they don’t stop participating. Sports England use a playground to podium scheme where they use their partners to run there schemes. â€Å"it comes following a consultation of landscaping partners Youth Sport Trust, Paralympics GB , UK Sport and a review of existing programs and initiatives. Athletics, Boccia, Football, Swimming, Table tennis, Wheelchair and basketball† Sport England (2012) these are the sports that Sport England will let other authority’s take Control of their sport and aim towards the goals set by Sport England and will have to aim to achieving them in order to receive funding at later dates. Quangos Definition http://www. bbc. co. uk/news/uk-politics-11405840 [07-12-12] Sports England http://www. sportengland. org/about_us/what_we_do. aspx [07-12-12] http://www. sportengland. org/support__advice/local_government/in_it_for_the_long_run/challenges_and_opportunities. aspx [07-12-12] Leona Trimble, L. etal (2010). Sport in the uk . Great Britain: learning matters ltd. 23. Sport England http://www. sportengland. org/about_us/what_we_do. aspx [07-12-12] Sewell (1999) Sports Development policy, process and practice http://www. sportengland. org/support__advice/playground_to_podium. aspx [ 13-12-12].

International Relations for Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping Essay

International Relations for Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping - Essay Example Actually, Mao Zedong through his Communist Party of China collaborated even with the capitalist states like the United States of America, Japan and many European countries. Mao Zedong had a great quest for dominance over the perceived neighbors and trade partners like Russia and Germany. As demonstrated by Wang (27), this made him appear resistant to the external forces advising him how to manage the government to find a throughway towards better economic development. In fact, Mao Zedong did ignore otherwise good advice from Stalin who wanted China to become a fully communist state. Mao also appeared to cheer over the death of Stalin hoping that he would become the next powerful leader to control the allied group. This however did not materialize when Khrushchev ascended to power to continue the initial state of power held by Stalin. Mao’s continued opposition against the ideologies of his fellow leaders in the Communist world including Khrushchev soured to the extent of causing withdrawal of China dismissal from the Communist Movement. Mao continually resisted moves and policies adopted by Khrushchev towards defending their members. One such op position occurred when Khrushchev backed down to Cuban missile milieu. Deng appears as one of the Chinese leaders who took the revolution vehicle to the right direction. After the death of Mao Zedong in 1976, and his rise to power, Deng repaired their tutored relationship with the international community by denouncing communism and adopting socialism form of rule. Deng went ahead to reconcile with Soviet Union and all countries that surrounded China having he pains of the peasant citizens at hand (Deng 23). In fact, Deng is one lead who contributed to the economic classification of countries as first class, second and third. In the classification, Deng admitted that Soviet Union and United States were in the first class. Deng also

Nteroperability in EHR implementations Analyze and communicate Article

Nteroperability in EHR implementations Analyze and communicate necessary data from EHR systems - Article Example However, their frequency and lack of necessity often incline to fatigue. Alert fatigue is a serious problem affecting health officers and physicians alike. Despite the safety precautions meant by these alerts, their frequency often results in the physician in question ignoring the alert all together (AHIMA 34). In such a case, the alerts are considered irrelevant and can often result in situations where even the important alerts are disregarded. According to recent studies, the ignore rate for these alerts ranges between eighty and ninety percent. This problem can be mitigated by reducing the number of alerts that pop up during a prescription. In most cases, prescribers are even unsure of why these alerts are generated in the first place. Thus, it would be vital to advice the relevant physicians and medical practitioners on the importance of these alerts (AHIMA 37). At the same time, alerts should be assigned in such a way that they only pop up to the appropriate practitioner to reduce fatigue. For instance, an alert meant for a physician should not appear in the screen when a pharmacist is describing drugs to a patient. This way, unnecessary alerts would be overridden, which would ultimately help in the reduction of alert fatigue. A request for proposal, commonly referred to as RFP, is a formal request that is often sent by a solicitor to a vendor. The RFP seeks to find out specific responses about the company, its products and its services that meet the requirements needed by the organization. Generally, an RFP includes a comprehensive summary of related costs for both software and hardware, and services for training, support, consulting and implementation (AHIMA 41). On the other hand, an RFI, which is a request for information, is used by an organization in an attempt at soliciting information about products and services being offers by the vendors (AHIMA 48). This is commonly considered as a

Strategic Management for Smirnoff Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Strategic Management for Smirnoff - Assignment Example Smirnoff is a brand of Vodka used in UK and is own and operated by British Company Diageo however, it has its roots in Moscow Russia. Smirnoff is now distributed in well over 130 countries with a network which is expanding and catering to the needs of different customers all over the world. Being an alcoholic drink, the overall external environment for this brand is relatively challenging considering the fact that many countries have banner alcoholic drinking. Issues like the underage selling, drunk driving and other strategic issues are considered as of significant importance. This is because these issues can actually affect the overall demand of the product. This report will look into the target market, value given by the company to its target market, a closer analysis of the internal as well as external environment including analysis of the industry as well as competition. This report will also look into the SWOT analysis of the firm to unearth strategic issues faced by the firm a nd what strategic options could be exercised to correct the situation. Company Background Smirnoff is a brand name managed by a British Company with the name of Diageo. It is however, important to note that Smirnoff as a brand has its historical roots in Russia when during 19th Century, Smirnoff as a vodka brand was started by Pytor Aresenievich Smrinoff. (Diageo Inc) Over the period of time, brand gained recognition and is now considered as the leading vodka brand in the world. What is also important to understand that Smirnoff was the only vodka available outside the communist countries after the Second World War? This therefore has given an edge to the brand to dominate the European and North American market and become the leading selling brand in the world. The company owning and operating this brand is also selling other brands which are also maintained as the strategic brands. These strategic brands therefore serve as the primary source of growth for the firm across all the ma rkets it operates. Some of the leading brands of Diageo include Johnnie Walker, Crown Royal, J&B etc. Smirnoff is also one of the strategic brands for the firm generating the required growth for the firm in the Spirit market.1 It is important to note that Smirnoff exists as a separate strategic business unit for the firm and it is sold through different channels. Delivery of the product through online market of the firm is also one of the ways firm manages sales for this brand. Target Market of the Company Diageo is considered as the premium drink company offering high worth brands to the individuals all over the world. As such the geographical distribution of the company’s target market is across the whole world with concentration in the European and North American market. It is critical to note that the drink market continuously evolve due to the market innovation and changing preferences of the customers. (ASIMOV, 2005). Though Diageo is a well diversified company with man y brands serving different niches in the drink market, however, Smirnoff caters to a different niche of the market. Though Vodka is famous for its uniqueness as a drink however, firm has been able to introduce new flavored drinks in order to cater to the needs of varying degree. The essential market for the drink comprises of those individual customers looking for ready to drink market with variety offered according to the Season of the year. This is because of

China vs. USA. The Quest for Global Supremacy Research Paper

China vs. USA. The Quest for Global Supremacy - Research Paper Example The Euro zone has become the lowest ranked commercial performers after severely affected regions in Africa. Although the United States has maintained its financial superiority, the stability of this particular region is not constant. With a fluctuating financial graph, the United States does not have control of the global commercial market. This leaves the top spot to upcoming commercial hubs. Asia and Middle East have countries with the fastest growing economies. With political instability making the Middle East a poor investment area, Asia remains the only region with the capability of claiming the throne in matters of commercial and financial success. One country that has significantly improved its commercial capabilities is the Republic of China. This paper will focus on the supremacy battles between the United States and China. The paper will also provide a perspective on which country has the highest probability of clinching the top spot in the long run. A perspective on the investment of both nations shows the difference between their strategies. In China investment opportunities are obtained from all nations across the globe. Regardless of their financial position China has invested in many countries in all continents. According to Swedroe, China has invested in 30 percent of all the countries in Africa (par, 4). This means that China looks to capitalize on the resources that Africa can bring to the global market. This maximization of the resources in Africa has raised the economy of China by around 10 percent (Lash, par 7). The situation is different when it comes to the United States. The United States bases its investment on the ability of the country to pay back in certain conditions. In most cases the United States strikes deal with state government instead of venturing into private investment. The private investment China undertakes enables the country to contract with other private companies who are in need of

Standardized Terminology in Nursing Practice Research Paper

Standardized Terminology in Nursing Practice - Research Paper Example The 514 NIC interventions will usually be found arranged in thirty classes and seven domains. The terminology is often used along with the development of electronic health records, (EHRs) (Cordova et. al., 2010). Other nursing terminologies include the Nursing Outcomes Classification, (NOC) and Standardized Nursing Diagnoses (NANDA). None of the above nursing taxonomies however have been included in a system of health information that considers the entire care that nurses provide to patients. NIC is advantageous over the other terminologies since its link to Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine (SNOMED) proves more important because of its ease of comprehensibility and more controlled vocabulary for biomedical sciences (Cordova et. al., 2010). This mapping integrates the NIC with other healthcare disciplines and is used in more than twenty-five countries. The NIC can also be closely related to the international method for classifying nurses, which is a base for providing a common st ructure for nursing interventions, diagnoses and outcomes. It was developed to determine the nursing costs based on interventions that have undergone standardization. The NIC terminology provides a foundation for capturing a valid measure of the nursing workload (Cordova et. al., 2010). The nature of nursing would require that the nurse engage in the care of a patient from the less complicated outpatient routines to the invasive hemodynamic procedures. The nursing process underpins nursing in five inter-related and recurrent stages: data gathering, planning, implementation and examination. The application of this process has enabled the use of standard language for the major practise situations, which are diagnosis, results and interventions (Herdman & NANDA International, 2011). The interest in using standardized language during nursing became deeper when the NANDA’s classification for nursing diagnoses developed. The

As a condition of voting, should people be required to demonstrate Essay

As a condition of voting, should people be required to demonstrate that they have an adequate understanding of how the American government works Why or Why not - Essay Example Voting is a high stalk game because wrong voting can lead to unjust wars, calamitous economic policies and needless wars. That is why voters should make the right decision while voting based on sound evidence that will lead to best policing and promote the common good rather than on self-interest. Voting is not a duty for everyone because some people vote based on their self-interest, while others are politically incompetent, and others are ignorant. If this kind of people votes then they owe it to the other citizens both voters and no-voters. There is nothing wrong by being ignorant in politics, misinformed or coming up with particular political belief so long as you do not impose your views on people by voting (Brennan, 2012). Research done indicate that most America voters are clueless on issues concerning political. If asked question on political, for instance, if they prefer diplomacy to military action in solving international conflict. Most lack ideas on what to say; others tend to refer to what they hard on television. If asked why they prefer one candidate to the others, they answer ignorantly and just say that they just like the way that person talks. If an individual cannot discuss rationally on foreign issues, name the staple of liberal ideology, or change their thoughts in response to information they are not able to remember. Then that people is better if he does not vote. Most voters vote based on partisan voting, which in most cases they inherit from their parents. Those who vote genuinely based on of facts are very few. Survey done in the 2000 and 2004 elections suggest that most voters behave politically just like voter of the 1950s. However, some scholars think that their colleagues have set the bar high of what is expected of the voters. Voting is an ethical issue and how we vote matters a lot. In our voting, we can create a better government or a worse one and

The effects of Behaviour Management on Teaching and Learning in Essay

The effects of Behaviour Management on Teaching and Learning in Secondary Education - Essay Example It has been fundamentally inspired by this virtue of behaviour management that it has today emerged as one of the major elements adopted by teachers in the pedagogy education system with the intention of improving the behaviour of learners (Rogers, 2007, p. 1-27). Notably, as pedagogy deal with young minds which are again attributed with high instability and curiosity, making the learners focused on a particular subject becomes a noteworthy challenge. Hence, teachers can be benefitted by obtaining better control on the behavioural traits of the learners which can assist in motivating the students to enhance their behavioural skills and consequently, build their future career prospects. However, the application of behaviour management initiatives is subjected to various factors among which the learning environment is often argued as one of the most crucial elements (Fields, 2004, p. 4-8). As argued by Rogers (2007, p. 1-27), an effective learning environment needs to be developed with the aim of conveying the rights as well as the responsibilities that are necessary for generating better disciplined school and classroom atmosphere and therefore implementing effective behavioural management strategies. It is in this regard that teachers, when applying the theories of modern pedagogy, attempt to introduce as well as execute certain developing and disciplinary programs for the purpose of motivating the learners to develop behavioural traits, appropriate for their promising future (Rogers, 2007, p. 1-27). As can be observed, the major objective of behaviour management is to ensure that the learners are able to acquire appropriate qualities and knowledge in accordance with which they will be able to determine the differences between pessimistic and optimistic influencing factors. Along with developing the behavioural skills of learners, it is also essential that the teachers are equipped with effective behavioural factors in order to ensure that they are able to impa rt appropriate educational knowledge and develop their skills successfully to the desired level. Additionally, it has also been often argued that with the help of behavioural management, teachers can develop the perceptions as well as influence the conscience of the learners which can further contribute towards minimising the involvement of those learners in conducting any sort of anti-social activities (Rogers, 2007, p. 1-27). In other words, with the help of behavioural management, learners’ behavioural traits can be developed in a more responsible as well as conscious way. With this concern, this paper intends to discuss the importance of behaviour management. Moreover, the effects of behaviour management on teaching as well as learning will be taken into concern. In this regard, the effects of behaviour management will be analysed by considering certain important reports like Steer and Taylor Reports among others. Focus of Behaviour Management In the context of education system, behaviour management is often viewed to be an important practice and discipline for the development of positive attitudes, skills and behaviours of students or learners. This particular aspect is recognised to be dependent on various values as well as aims according to which the learning programs and policies are formulated

The Death of Ivan Ilych Essay Example for Free

The Death of Ivan Ilych Essay During Ilych’s appointment with the first doctor he consulted about his condition, he noticed that the doctor was a man who considered himself an expert in his turf and who looked down on everybody else as people who knew a lot less and whose lives would be affected by his own choice of moves, acts or decisions. In the role of the patient whose ailment was yet to be specifically identified, Ilych noticed that the doctor he visited – and those he subsequently went to, as well – personified the public official that he was. Having been serving as the examining magistrate of the town, Ilych was undoubtedly powerful and influential. He could summon any man, whatever his station was – rich or poor, educated or ignorant, successful or otherwise – to the court, and he could do with them whatever he wanted to do by the decisions that only he could make. He reveled in the control he wielded; he figured out complicated cases and readily saw them as simple knots, and he concluded countless of cases without emotion and using only objectivity, logic and his authority. The outcome of some cases destroyed lives, turned victims’ worlds upside down, ended professional careers, broke families, shut down businesses and shattered dreams of many people. Through it all, Ilych was the detached magistrate who could not care less what happened to any of the many participants in the cases he officiated. He was puffed up, callous and undeniably proud. The same arrogance could be found in most other characters in the story; Ilych’s colleagues saw nothing in his death but a definite signal of changes in the make-up of their elite circle. They were more concerned with what Ilych’s demise would mean to their respective posts. The same selfishness was demonstrated mostly by everyone. Even Ilych’s wife could not disguise her greed for what she would be entitled to as a widow. On the whole, the story is a sad depiction of how meaningless life can be when lived for the wrong reasons, purposes and goals. The happy bit of a part is brought about by knowing that before he finally drew his last breath, Ilych shook himself free of such wrong values and beliefs – he found out that love and concern for others are the things that genuinely lead a person to find happiness. Works Cited Tolstoy, Leo. The Death of Ivan Ilych. Kila, Montana: Kessinger Publishing, 2004.

Transgenderism and homosexuality in Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Iran and Iraq Essay Example for Free

Transgenderism and homosexuality in Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Iran and Iraq Essay Introduction In this paper I will address the issues of transgenderism and homosexuality. These issues are quite controversial and attitude to them is different in different countries of the world. It should be mentioned that attitude to sexual minorities is different in different countries of the world and varied though time. Brief Outline of the Homosexual and Transgender Issues The first question under discussion is the homosexual relations. We can observe a great number of laws, intended to regulate the relations between people of the same sex. In some countries this is considered quite acceptable. People of the same sex are even allowed to marry legally and even adopt children. In the other communities the attitude to the same-sex relations is completely different and homosexuals can even be punished with the death penalty for their homosexual conduct. The fist laws on same-sex relations date back to 600 BC in ancient Crete and Sparta. These were the first laws allowing adult men to participate in the same sex relations (Rothblatt, 1995). In the majority of the Western cultures same-sex relations are tolerated and calling a person a gay or a lesbian can be considered even sufficient enough for a libel lawsuit, like this happened in case of Jason Donovan and Liberace, who won the case against the newspaper calling them gays (Rothblatt, 1995). However, we can’t say that homosexual relations are always tolerated. The first laws against same-sex relations date back to 550 BC, when homosexuals were called Leviticus and punished with the death penalty. Many scholars attribute this difference in attitudes to a distinction between Judaism and Paganism. Pagan religions usually consider same-sex relations to be normal, while Judaism, Christianity and Islam blame people for the same-sex relations. One more issue under discussion in this paper is transgenderism, which can be briefly defined as a social movement, which is intended to support transgender rights and raise self-esteem of transgender people. One more definition, which I’d like to mention, is the one proposed by Martine Rothblatt in her book â€Å"Apartheid of Sex†, where she defines â€Å"transgenderism as a grassroots political movement seeking transgender rights and affirming transgender pride† (Rothblatt, 1995). On the other hand, transgenderism, is usually used to denote a phenomenon of gender identity disorder. This definition is supported by the International Journal of Transgenderism. Transsexualism is also a subject matter of the study in this paper. It is usually defined as a condition, when individuals identify themselves with the physical sex different from the one of their birth. After the sexual revolution in Western Europe, which took place in the end of 20th century transsexualism became a recognized notion, however, in many other countries of the world it is still a taboo due to the religious and cultural norms accepted in the definite country (Lang, 1997). Quite close to the notion of transsexualism is the notion of transvestism, which is defined as a practice of cross-dressing, when a person wears the cloths of the opposite sex and thus associates him/herself with the individual of the opposite sex. Transgenderism and Homosexuality in the Middle East It should be mentioned that attitude to homosexuals, transgender people and transvestites differ from country to country. While the attitude to them in the West European cultures is quite moderate, Eastern cultures usually do not accept them. This is greatly due to the great influence of religion on the lives of all people. Islam has stricter rules concerning the sexual life of individuals be it people with traditional sexual orientation, transgender people or homosexuals. A lot depends also on the position of the government and their attitude to sexual minorities. The issues of transgenderism and homosexuality are quite different, which leads even to different attitudes towards them based on the Quran interpretation. The Quran considers â€Å"approaching males in lust, as well as the castration of males, as the sin of the people of Lot† (Quran 7:81, 26:165-166, 27:55, 29:28-29). On the other hand it’s quite acceptable under the Quran to use as passive sex partners the ancient category of men who by nature lacked desire for women, since such men were not considered â€Å"male† due to the fact that they lacked of arousal for women. These kinds of men are often known as â€Å"gays† today, but in the ancient world they were identified as anatomically whole â€Å"natural eunuchs† (Malik, 2007). Also these men, who lack arousal for women, are called â€Å"ghair oolaa il-irbati min ar-rijaali† (Quran:24:31) which translates as â€Å"without the defining skill of males† (Malik, 2007). These men are by Islam allowed to see woman naked. Islam is extremely against a man seeing any part of a woman if they are not directly related or wed, to the extent where, in some translations, the woman has to even cover her hair with a scarf. This only proves the fact that Islam doesn’t consider these individuals as me. They belong to their own category, which is not is not regulated by the rules of the Quran. The reason of intolerable attitude of the Quran to homosexual relations lies in the interpretation of marriage. Muslim people strongly believe in heterosexual marriage, and do not accept sexual activity before marriage between a man and woman. Since there can’t be any marriage between the persons belonging to the same sex, sexual relations between a man and man or woman and woman are also prohibited. As a result many Muslim Middle Eastern nations consider LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender) issues as a crime which is punished by fines or by imprisonment. In some countries homosexuality is even punished by the death penalty. Examples of such countries are Afghanistan, Iran, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia and Yemen (Brown, 2005). Some researchers explain why nations of the Middle East do not accept sexual minorities in the following way: â€Å"many Middle Eastern nations did not gain full independence until the 1960’s—1970’s and those nations that were unified and independent were focused on foreign policy conflicts and economic development†. (Brown, 2005). Moreover, â€Å"most Middle Eastern nations were authoritarian regimes based on Islamic fundamentalism. Thus gay citizens had little or no free democratic institutions to openly influence public policy. Political parties or organized were prohibited. ‘Moderate’ nations that allowed for some degree of political and social freedom never extended to any challenge to the laws and opinion regarding sexual orientation† (Brown, 2005). In this paper I will consider in more detail the issues associated with homosexuality and transgenderism in four countries of the Middle East, namely Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Iran and Iraq. Transgender and Homosexual Issues in Kuwait The fist country, which I will analyze in regard with its attitude to LGBT issues, is Kuwait. It should be mentioned that the attitude of Kuwaiti people towards sexual minorities is generally shaped by Islam and the government. Kuwait is 85  % Muslim (Central Intelligence Agency, 2007). As it was already mentioned Islam does not tolerate homosexuality and in some cases transgenderism is associated as homosexual behavior as well. The other factor, which influences the attitude to LGBTs, is the government. Kuwait is a constitutional emirate, (Central Intelligence Agency, 2007) functioning under authoritative document that contains all the laws determining the operations and limits of that government. Also, the Kuwaiti government is a government where power and the final word belongs to the emir ( roughly translated as prince, but means the ruler of the state). Furthermore, the legal system is a civil law system with Islamic law significant in personal matters(Central Intelligence Agency, 2007). This technically means that Islamic laws would interfere with personal issues such as a person’s sexual orientation. Homosexuality in Kuwait is illegal and punished (International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission, 2002). An example of such an incident where homosexuality was punished and discriminated against occurred in February 2005, where the police charged a group of 28 alleged homosexuals with creating a public disturbance after they met outside a fast-food restaurant. On October 27, police raided a party where homosexuals were allegedly celebrating a wedding. On December 10, the legislative committee of the National Assembly unanimously approved a law to impose a fine of $3,450 (1,000 dinars) and/or one year’s imprisonment for those imitating the opposite sex (Reports and Musings from the Veteran Gay and AIDS Human Rights Advocate, 2007). In the case of transgender, however, the attitude is a bit milder. Thus, the legal stand is that it is appropriate to treat transgender people medically if it possible. But in some cases the problem of a transgender person is simply denied. The Kuwaiti court recently had a case where a 25 year old man who underwent a sex change operation wanted to be regarded as a woman. This ruling was overturned by the court under the belief that God decides gender and humans have no right to change it. â€Å"Ahmed is still a man, and the operation he had does not change the way he was created, even if it changed the way he looks to others†, said Mohammed al-Tabtabai, the dean of Kuwaits Sharia College (Kuwait: transsexual fighting for recognition, 2004) Transgenderism is still unclear and uncertain when it comes to the law and the government, in society, however, it is clearly unaccepted. An example of this can be seen from an interview with a cross dressing kuwaiti male. In reference to his family, this cross dressing kuwaiti male says that, â€Å"They (his parents) tolerated me as a child, thinking it was a result of growing up in an all-girls family. Eventually as I got older, they kicked me out of the house, but agreed to pay for my education abroad. They said what I’m doing is extremely shameful, and while they love and care about me, they can no longer be seen with me. They don’t like the embarrassment. I left right away, it was very hurtful. I was very dependent on my mother. I was also hurt because my sisters didn’t help me when I thought they would. They are also embarrassed with me because students used to make fun of them at school, when they would pick me up from class† (Interview with a Kuwaiti transsexual, 2007). Furthermore, in reference to teachers, he said â€Å"They never helped me when others teased me. They treated me like I was a mentally ill child whenever I’d request their help. I would play with the girls in the playground and the girls used to complain that it’s a â€Å"just for girls† game. Teachers would pick me up and throw me out† (Interview with a Kuwaiti transsexual, 2007). Finally, In reference to his peers, they were the harshest. He stated â€Å"I wish it was just teasing. I was beaten and very humiliated. After I came home with a broken arm and nose, it was too dangerous for me to go to public school, so my parents forced me to switch to home schooling† (Interview with a Kuwaiti transsexual, 2007). Although they are treated badly by society and the government, homosexuals and transsexuals actually take a stand and fight for their rights. Kuwaiti transsexuals and homosexuals have applied for a permit to form their own association. They are hoping to get some protection from Kuwait law especially after the Kuwaiti parliament (Majles al Umma) decreed laws that criminalize changing to the `third sex.` (Improvisations: Arab Woman Progressive Voice, 2007) Transgender and Homosexual Issues in Saudi Arabia The other country under discussion is Saudi Arabia, which is 100  % Muslim. Its government type is a monarchy, under which all the power belongs to the monarch who controls the entire state. This monarchy is very strict and very harsh. Furthermore, the legal system in Saudi Arabia is based on the Sharia law, which is all based on a very strict version of Islam (Central Intelligence Agency, 2007). Saudi Arabia takes Islam to the extreme, to the point where the position of a woman is almost illegal. They are not allowed to walk out of the house without covering up, so one can only imagine the lack of tolerance Saudi Arabia would have for homosexuals. Homosexuality is severely punished, in some cases even with the death penalty. Moreover, the death penalty is carried out in a barbaric manner. In Saudi Arabia it is still accepted to stone homosexuals to death. An example of such a barbaric incidence occurred 7 years ago when the Saudi government imprisoned nine Saudi men and lashed them for engaging in cross-dressing and homosexual acts. Moreover, they executed three Yemeni male workers for homosexuality and child molestation. In addition, in April 2005, the government imprisoned a hundred men because they were at a private party that was most probably a same-sex wedding ceremony or a birthday party. Yet, not long after a gay foreign couple was sentenced to death for homosexuality and allegedly killing a man who was blackmailing them for homosexuality (Reports, stories and information for gay men in Saudi Arabia, 2007).   The other accident of the death penalty for homosexual behavior happened in 1996, when one Saudi man was beheaded for homosexual behavior (Gay Marriage†¦in Saudi Arabia? 2007). The attitude to transgenderism in Saudi Arabia is a bit different. The government also does not tolerate it, however, permits surgery for intersex people in case it is proven that this is a mental disorder. â€Å"Saudi Arabia does not allow surgery for transsexuals, but permits operations on people with an intersex condition† (Usher, 2007). An extreme example of such surgeries took place to five sisters who wanted to change their sex to male. The doctor carrying out the surgery stressed that he just made â€Å"gender correction† rather than sex change operations. This doctor, Dr Jamal has preformed has performed over 200 sex change operations. However, as he states most of the operations were performed were on androgynous babies. Saudi Arabian, Dr Jamal, emphasized that these five girls were actually inter-sexed, and he would never perform surgery on people with normal genitalia but wanted to belong to the opposite sex, because as he states â€Å"Islam did not allow people to change what God had created† (Usher, 2007). Transvestism is severely punished. For example, Saudi man was given 200 lashes and 6 months in prison for cross dressing at a wedding party (Saudis Arrest 5 Pakistani TGs, 1998). Transgender and Homosexual Issues in Iran The other country, which is would like to describe regarding its attitude to LGBT issues, is Iran. The attitude to sexual minorities here is ambiguous. On the one hand homosexuality is punished by death; on the other hand, Iran is the country, which legally performs sex change operations in the word. Iran is 98  % Muslim (Central Intelligence Agency, 2007). Its legal system is based on Sharia law, and its government is a theocratic republic, which is a form of government controlled by religious authority. Moreover, there is a Deity who is considered the supreme civil ruler, and his laws interpreted by the mullahs (Central Intelligence Agency, 2007) Basically Iran is an extremely Muslim state, which explains completely the intolerable attitude of people and government to homosexuality. â€Å"All sexual relations that occur outside of a traditional, heterosexual marriage (i.e. sodomy or adultery) are illegal and no legal distinction is made between consensual or non-consensual sexual activity. Homosexual relations that occur between consenting adults in private are a crime and carry a maximum punishment of death† (LGBT Rights in Iran, 2007). In addition, there are no civil rights legislation that exist in that disallow discrimination against homosexuals, and only negative depictions of homosexuality are allowed in the press. The concept of sexual orientation is not recognized in Iran, nor does the judiciary acknowledge the existence of LGBT people and instead believes that all people are normally heterosexual. Thus, they claim that `homosexuality is a violation of the supreme will of their God. As a result, no laws exist that protect LGBT Iranians from discrimination, harassment, or bias-motivated violence, and as a theocratic political system, no such laws are permitted to exist. Most Iranian LGBT people remain in the closet about their sexual orientation for fear of being the victims of discrimination, hate crimes, government sanctions, corporal punishment, and/or capital punishment. Male homosexuality is a crime punished by death, The way they are killed is usually barbaric, but ultimately decided by the Sharia judge. All homosexuals are punished by death unless they are not sane or are not adult. Juveniles who are accused and proved to have engaged in homosexual behavior are punishment with 74 lashes. (Articles 108 to 113) This is proved by confession or by the testimony of four righteous men only and not women. Different homosexuals acts have different levels of punishment. For instance â€Å"Tafhiz†, which is the rubbing of the thighs or buttocks, done by two men is punished with 100 lashes. If this act is repeated four times then they will be punished with the death penalty. (Articles 121 and 122). Furthermore If two men simply stand naked under one cover together without touching or anything, they are punished with up to 99 lashes. If one man kisses another in a sexual way they are punishment with 60 lashes. (Articles 123 and 124). As for adolescents, in 2007 two teenagers have been executed for homosexual behavior, (LGBT Rights in Iran, 2007) even is this goes against the law stated earlier. Female homosexuality is punished less severely. Thus, women are usually punished with 100 lashes. However if the act is repeated more than three times then they will be punished with death. Women who stand naked under one cover without touching or any farther acts of lust and are not relatives are punished with 100 lashes. (Article 134)` (LGBT Rights in Iran, 2007). Real life examples that occurred in Iran of punishing homosexual behavior according to The Boroumand Foundation exceed 107 executions between 1979 and 1990. Moreover according to Amnesty International, at least 5 people convicted of `homosexual tendencies`, three men and two women, were executed in January 1990, as a result of the Iranian governments policy of calling for the execution of those who practice homosexuality. However, transsexuals are considered completely normal, greatly due to the fact that since 1980s transexuality is considered an illness that can be corrected by surgery (LGBT Rights in Iran, 2007). Iran has between 15,000 and 20,000 transsexuals, according to official statistics. In addition Iran has more sex change operations than any country in the world next to Thailand. These operations have been legal since Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, leader of the Islamic revolution, passed a fatwa legalizing them nearly 25 years ago, under the fact that the Quran says nothing about sex change operations for those who need them. Transsexuality is considered an illness, while an operation is the cure. Furthermore, not only does the government allow sex change operations, they fund it as well as the hormone therapy needed. An example of a transgendered person in Iran Mahyar. As a small child Mahyar liked dressing up in womens clothes and playing with make-up. This obsession did not die, in fact it only increased over time, and as she got older she stated that `I badly needed to do it but it had to be in secret,` and now she wants to have a sex-change operation. Transgender and Homosexual Issues in Iraq Finally, I’d like to discuss one more country – Iraq. It should be mentioned that homosexuality was considered legal in Iraq under Saddam Hussein until late 2001. However, later the attitude towards it changed and became stricter due to the pressure from religious conservatives. Under the law passed in 2001 homosexuality was punished by imprisonment, and repeated convictions were defined to be punishable even by death. However, there were still no cases when homosexuals were punished with the death penalty. Hussein did not consider homosexuality to be a crime due to the fact that it was against the Secular Socialist beliefs of the Baath Party. Now the legal status of homosexuality is still a matter of severe dispute. Thus, we can see that homosexuality is not illegal in Iraq de jure, but still remains a taboo (Brown, 2005) The legal basis of Iraq concerning homosexual and transgender issues is quite controversial. On the one hand Iraq does not have a definite criminal or penal code concerning these issues. On the other hand this does not mean that sexual minorities have the same rights as people with traditional sexual orientation. This controversy arises from the inner controversy in the country. Thus, Iraq was a secular socialist dictatorship, but its life is generally ruled by the fundamentalist Islam. One prove of the intolerable attitude of the public towards sexual minorities can be seen in the event, which took place in 1993. Then Iraq’s United Nations representatives opposed the International Lesbian Gay Associations application, when the latter tried to apply for consultative status as a non-governmental organization. The explanation of this act was simple: â€Å"based on our firm belief that the work of this organization runs counter to the beliefs of all divine religions.† (Brown, 2005). Conclusions So, as we can see the attitude to sexual minorities in Iraq is milder than in the other countries of the Middle East but still it is quite severe if compared with the Western Europe. Still the problem of treating homosexual and transgender issues exists. This is greatly because of the strong influence of the religion on the public and political life of the country. As Islam is quite a strict religion concerning the sexual life of the people, it makes the situation of the sexual minorities really hard. However, as we can see little by little homosexuals and transgender people still gain their rights and probably in the future their position in the Middle East will not be that dangerous. References Brown, Edward TJ. (2005). Iraq: Sexual Orientation, Human Rights and the Law. Online. Available from: http://www.sodomylaws.org/world/iraq/iqnews003.htm 30 November 2007.    Central intelligence agency. The world factbook. Online. Available from: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ku.html#People 30 November 2007. Improvisations: Arab Woman Progressive Voice. News and Commentary on Arab Women, Palestine, Cultural Politics, and Everything in Between. Online. Available from: http://arabwomanprogressivevoice.blogspot.com/2007/09/kuwaiti-boyaats-seek-to-unite.html 30 November 2007. International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission (2002). Kuwait. Status of Sexual Minorities. Amnesty International Report. Middle East and North Africa. Interview with a Kuwaiti transsexual. Online. Available from: http://www.mideastyouth.com/2007/07/21/interview-with-a-kuwaiti-transsexual 30 November 2007. Kuwait: transsexual fighting for recognition. (2004). Online. Available from: http://mostlyafrica.blogspot.com/2004/11/kuwait-transsexual-fighting-for.html 30 November 2007. Lang, Sabine. (1997). Two-Spirit People: Native American Gender Identity, Sexuality, and Spirituality. University of Illinois Press. LGBT Rights in Iran. Online. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Iran#_note-7 30 December 2007. Malik, Faris. Queer Sexuality and Identity in the Quran and Hadith. Online. Available from: http://www.well.com/user/aquarius/Qurannotes.htm 30 December 2007. Reports and Musings from the Veteran Gay and AIDS Human Rights Advocate. Online. Available from: http://mpetrelis.blogspot.com/ 30 November 2007. Reports, stories and information for gay men in Saudi Arabia Online. Available from: http://www.gaymiddleeast/country/saudiarabia 30 November 2007. Rothblatt, Martine (1995). Apartheid of Sex. Westview Press. Saudis Arrest 5 Pakistani TGs. (1998). PlanetOut Corporation. Usher, Sebastian. Gender correction for Saudi girls. Online. Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3814041.stm 30 November 2007.

Linguistics Psychology Contribution to Language Teaching

Linguistics Psychology Contribution to Language Teaching THE CONTRIBUTION OF LINGUISTICS AND PSYCHOLOGY TO LANGUAGE TEACHING Since the beginning of the 20th century investigations in the fields of psychology and lingusitics have paved the way to new concepts of language teaching. On the basis the acquired empirical evidence, linguists, researchers and scholars have developed certain methods to improve the process of child and adult language acquisition. According to Stern (1992), â€Å"One of the main features of the development of language pedagogy has been the continuous attempt to renew language teaching through changes in teaching methods† (p.6). To a great extent, these new approaches â€Å"have reflected changes in theories of the nature of language and of language learning† (Richards Rodgers, 2001 p.1). The aim of this essay is to analyse the impact of linguistics and psychology on language teaching; such an analysis has been a topic of increasing importance over the last years, as the recent reforms and educational standards are considerably based on both disciplines. These reforms a re introduced to account for individual differences of language learners and to diversify the process of language acquisition. Although many language teachers take psychology and linguistics courses in universities, only some of them can effectively apply their knowledge of psychology and linguisitics to language teaching. This inconsistency can be explained by two key factors: firstly, there are many controversies in research findings and, secondly, the received results are not tested within the classroom environment. Thus, the role of a modern language teacher is to fill the gaps between theoretical assumptions of linguists or psychologists and practical usage. Linguistics as a discipline investigates the structure of language and different processes of language acquisition. The gradual shift from structural to generative linguistics reveals the linguists’ attempts to establish a new taxonomy for language teaching. Structural linguisitics initiated by Ferdinand de Saussure (1966) at the beginning of the 20th century delves deeply into word forms and their meanings. In Brown’s (1980) viewpoint, â€Å"Structural linguistics had provided tools for dissecting language into its smallest parts and for contrasting two languages† (p.242). This school of linguistics is more interested in modern speech patterns rather than in diachronic language changes. Withdrawing from the traditional historical-descriptive analysis, structural linguistics (together with behaviouristic psychology) has challenged the efficacy of the Grammar-translation method and has generated the emergence of the Audio-Lingual Method. As Larsen-Freeman (1986) s tates, the Grammar-Translation Method prevailed in language teaching up to the middle of the 20th century. This method provides learners with an opportunity to acquire grammar and vocabulary skills; however, this is not the case with communicative skills. The fact is that the Grammar-Translation Method â€Å"views language learning as consisting of little more than memorising rules and facts† (Richards Rodgers, 2001 p.5). In light of this, the method satisfies the needs of those learners who perform standardised tests or translations, but it is inappropriate for those learners who want to speak a foreign language. In contrast to the Grammar-Translation Method, the Audio-Lingual Approach puts major focus on continual repetition of different language patterns and listening. Applying this method to language teaching, educators help learners recognise phrasal verbs and other language structures that were fully neglected in the Grammar-Translation Method. The obvious advantage of the Audio-Lingual Approach is that error correction is reduced, while motivation of learners is increased. In this approach, as Stern (2001) points out, imitation of speech is more crucial than understanding of the meaning. Although the Audio-Lingual Approach is certainly more effective for the formation of learners’ linguistic competence than the Grammar-Translation Method, it is unsuitable for the formation of learners’ communicative competence. However, in the Total Physical Response Approach proposed by Asher (1969) more heed is paid to learners’ comunicative competence. Integrating the concepts of structural linguistics and behaviourist psychology into his approach, Asher (1969) implies that both the first and second language is easily acquired if the balance between action and speech is achieved. Unlike structural linguistics, generative/transformational linguistics proposed by Noam Chomsky (1966) deals with the analysis of learners’ unconscious cognition rather than with the language production. In other words, generative linguistics specifies that there are certain natural rules with the help of which a learner constructs sentences. In the 1960-1980s the Natural Approach emerged on the basis of the concepts proposed by Chomsky (1966) and Krashen and Terrell (1983). According to Krashen and Terrell (1983), both children and adults use their innate LADs (Language Acquisition Devices) in the process of language learning. But unlike children, adults possess problem-solving skills that allow them to acquire language in conscious and unconscious ways. Two important conclusions can be drawn from theoretical assumptions of Krashen and Terrell (1983): firstly, in childhood a language is acquired, in adulthood it is learned; secondly, communication is the major element of adul t language learning. Psychology as a discipline examines the functions of the human mind and their relation to human behaviour. The move from behaviouristic to cognitive psychology in the middle of the 20th century signifies that psychologists became interested in scientific research and analyses of intellectual processes. Behaviouristic psychology supported by Skinner (1984) adheres to the idea that language teaching should be based on observations of learners’ behaviours rather than on the examination of inner factors. Seen from this viewpoint, the process of language teaching occurs under the constant control of a teacher with the minimal use of reinforcement strategies. While the behaviouristic school of psychology has inspired the use of computer-based materials in language teaching, the cognitive school of psychology has generated the spread of discovery learning programs. Cognitive psychology has contributed much to the spread of the Communicative Language Teaching Approach supported by Wid dowson (1978) and the Silent Way Approach proposed by Gattegno (1976). Special attention in the Communicative Language Teaching Approach is given to interaction, communication in a foreign language and use of authentic reading materials (Nunan, 1991). Taking into account the research on human cognition, the Silent Way Approach has changed the direction of language teaching. This approach allows learners to devise their own language hypotheses and verify their validity in practice. Unquestionably, the Silent Way Approach shapes learners’ freedom of thought and helps them â€Å"develop their own inner criteria for correctness† (Larsen-Freeman, 1986 p.62). As communication in the Silent Way Approach and the Communicative Language Teaching Approach occurs in the target language, learners’ communicative skills are formed in a rapid pace. Contrary to the Grammar-Translation Method, these approaches pay much attention to phonetics and phonology and introduce different â€Å"problem-solving activities† (Richards Rodgers, 2001 p.27). While in the Grammar-Translation Method many parallels are drawn between the native language and the target language, such parallels are not employed in the Communicative Language Teaching Approach and other recent methods. The idea of communicative competence is the core principle of other emerged methods, in particular, the Community Language Learning Method and the Suggestopaedia. These approaches reveal inconsistencies of prior methods, implying that there is a close connection between language and context. The Community Language Learning Method is quite popular in today’s language teaching due to its learner-oriented ethics. The Suggestopedia Approach concentrates on relaxation as an integral part of successful language acquisition; the widespread activity of this approach is listening to music during language lessons. Overall, all methods that have been developed under the impact of linguistics and psychology highlight group working and the use of individual approaches to every learner. Group working shapes learners’ communicative skills and problem-solving abilities; individual approaches are crucial for the formation of learners’ identities and recognition of factors that af fect language acquisition. Many variables are juxtaposed in culturally or socially diverse learning environment; hence, individual approaches allow to reveal all obstacles to language learning. Linguisitics and psychology have demonstrated that the principal goal of any teaching method is to help learners use a language in everyday situations and in different settings rather than construct gramatically-correct utterances. The Task-Based Language Teaching Approach is developed for these specific purposes. Designing versatile tasks, an educator teaches language learners to respond flexibly to the given activity and co-operate with peers. As the essay suggests, linguistics and psychology have significantly reinforced the need for efficient teaching methods. Under the impact of these disciplines, language teachers have started to experiment with approaches, making an attempt to reconcile theory with practice. The structural school of linguistics has provided educators with valuable insights on the process of language acquisition. The generative school of linguistics has revealed that language acquisition in children occurs on an unconscious level, while language acquisition in adults occurs on both conscious and unconscious levels. The behaviouristic school of psychology has reduced the importance of meaning in language acquisition, but has stimulated the implementation of computers in schools and universitites. The cognitive school of psychology has rejected settled opinions and has defined the concepts that are successfully used in teaching culturally diverse learners. Taken together, linguistics and psychology have revealed that different methods should be used in language teaching, methods that integrate such techniques as reinforcement, individual approaches and communication (Kumaravadivelu, 2003). As new teaching methods came to the fore, the role of an educator in language teaching was changed. In the Audio-Lingual Method, the Suggestopedia or the Natural Approach a teacher is treated as an instructor; contrariwise, in the Communicative Language Teaching Approach or the Community Language Learning a teacher is an assistant to language learners. Bibliography Asher, J. J. (1969) ‘The Total Physical Response Approach to Second Language Learning’. The Modern Language Journal, 53 (1), 3-17. Brown, H. D. (1980). Principles of language learning and teaching. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice Hall Regents. Chomsky, N. (1966) Topics in the theory of generative grammar. The Hague: Mouton. Gattegno, C. (1976) The Common sense of teaching foreign languages. New York: Educational Solutions Inc. Krashen, S. Terrell, T. (1983) The Natural Approach: Language acquisition in the classroom. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Kumaravadivelu, B. (2003) Beyond methods: Macrostrategies for language teaching. New Haven, C. T.: Yale University Press. Larsen-Freeman, D. (1986) Techniques and principles in language teaching. New York: Oxford University Press. Nunan, D. (1991) Language teaching methodology: A textbook for teachers. London: Prentice Hall International. Richards, J. C. Rodgers, T. S. (2001) Approaches and methods in language teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press. Saussure, F. de (1966) Course in General Linguistics. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Skinner, B. F. (1984) ‘The operational analysis of psychological terms’. Behavioural and brain sciences, 7 (4), 547-581. Stern, H. (1992) Issues and options in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Stern, H. (2001) Fundamental concepts of language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Widdowson, H. G. (1978) Teaching language as communication. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Character Analysis of The Wife of Bath of Chaucers Canterbury Tales :: Chaucer The Wife of Bath

Character Analysis of The Wife of Bath of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales In Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, In Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, Chaucer opens with a description of twenty-nine people who are going on a pilgrimage. Each person has a distinct personality that we can recognize from the way people behave today. He purposely makes The Wife of Bath stand out more compared to the other characters. In Chaucer’s â€Å"General Prologue,† the Wife of Bath is intentionally described in an explicit way to provoke a shocking response. Her clothes, physical features and references to her past are purposely discussed by Chaucer causing the reader to wonder how well she fits the rules imposed by Christian authorities regarding womanly behavior. Women were categorized as saints or sinners by their actions according to Christian tradition. There were two women who represented the sinner or the saint. Eve caused the downfall of all men â€Å" supposedly† whereas the Virgin Mary, the mother of Christ, symbolized purity. The Wife of Bath is a headst rong bold woman of her time. She shows off her Sunday clothes with evident pride, wearing ten pounds of cloth, woven by herself under her hat.Her clothing symbolizes to the reader that she is not timid or shy and also shows off her expertise as a weaver.. Chaucer discusses his words to describe the Wife quite distinctly. His descriptions of her facial and bodily features are sexually suggestive. The features that Chaucer pays attention to describing Alison should be noticed. In the â€Å"General Prologue,† Chaucer's description involves her physical appearance describing her clothes, legs, feet, hips, and most importantly her gap-tooth, which during that time (according to The Wife), symbolized sensuality and lust. He discusses how she is a talented weaver and devoted Christian who goes on pilgrimages often. This may make the reader believe that she is a religious woman, but the reader later sees that the Wife's reason to go on these pilgrimages is not due to religion. She feels that every place should be seen; this has nothing to due with religion. She may also be dedicated traveller, a medieval tourist who likes to sight see. She is a very self-confident woman who thinks highly of herself and her skills as a cloth maker. The ironic part is when Chaucer adds that she has a gap between her teeth. During the fourteenth century, having a gap between the teeth was symbolic of a sensual nature. Character Analysis of The Wife of Bath of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales :: Chaucer The Wife of Bath Character Analysis of The Wife of Bath of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales In Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, In Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, Chaucer opens with a description of twenty-nine people who are going on a pilgrimage. Each person has a distinct personality that we can recognize from the way people behave today. He purposely makes The Wife of Bath stand out more compared to the other characters. In Chaucer’s â€Å"General Prologue,† the Wife of Bath is intentionally described in an explicit way to provoke a shocking response. Her clothes, physical features and references to her past are purposely discussed by Chaucer causing the reader to wonder how well she fits the rules imposed by Christian authorities regarding womanly behavior. Women were categorized as saints or sinners by their actions according to Christian tradition. There were two women who represented the sinner or the saint. Eve caused the downfall of all men â€Å" supposedly† whereas the Virgin Mary, the mother of Christ, symbolized purity. The Wife of Bath is a headst rong bold woman of her time. She shows off her Sunday clothes with evident pride, wearing ten pounds of cloth, woven by herself under her hat.Her clothing symbolizes to the reader that she is not timid or shy and also shows off her expertise as a weaver.. Chaucer discusses his words to describe the Wife quite distinctly. His descriptions of her facial and bodily features are sexually suggestive. The features that Chaucer pays attention to describing Alison should be noticed. In the â€Å"General Prologue,† Chaucer's description involves her physical appearance describing her clothes, legs, feet, hips, and most importantly her gap-tooth, which during that time (according to The Wife), symbolized sensuality and lust. He discusses how she is a talented weaver and devoted Christian who goes on pilgrimages often. This may make the reader believe that she is a religious woman, but the reader later sees that the Wife's reason to go on these pilgrimages is not due to religion. She feels that every place should be seen; this has nothing to due with religion. She may also be dedicated traveller, a medieval tourist who likes to sight see. She is a very self-confident woman who thinks highly of herself and her skills as a cloth maker. The ironic part is when Chaucer adds that she has a gap between her teeth. During the fourteenth century, having a gap between the teeth was symbolic of a sensual nature.

Marijuana for Medical Use Essay examples -- Papers Weed Cannabis Medic

Marijuana for Medical Use For many years the United States government has prohibited some drugs, such as marijuana, from being sold in the marketplace. Yet, even with prohibition, marijuana use has only decreased minimally. Because of its illegality, only the bad aspects of marijuana use have been made known. However, there are many positive aspects of marijuana legalization, including its application concerning medical cures. As of today, in most of the states, marijuana is classified as an illegal drug. However, due to its proven medicinal purposes, the drug should be made available for sick people to use. Marijuana has been used for multiple purposes prior to the birth of Christ. Marijuana originated in the Middle East. China played an important part in marijuana's history. ?Hoatho, the first Chinese physician, used cannabis for medical purposes as a painkiller and as an anesthetic for surgery? stated Morgan (5). China was not the only country that used marijuana as a medicine. For example, in Thailand it was used to stimulate the appetite of people who were ill. ?It would make them sleep, and counteract diarrhea,? states Thompson (10). Clearly, we can see that the use of marijuana began as a medicine, and with more research we can find better uses of marijuana as for medicinal purposes. Marijuana is very helpful in easing the suffering of the sick but it also creates side effects. The scientific eviden ce published to date indicates that marijuana has a broad range of psychological and biological effects, some of which are harmful to human health. Marijuana has different effects on the nervous system and on behavior. Marijuana impairs motor coordination and affects tracking ability and sensory and perceptual functio... ...work. It is easier to administer and the results are often much faster. It would be a tremendous advantage if patients were allowed to smoke marijuana. Marijuana should not be an illicit drug; it should be legalized for medical purposes only. Bibliography: Berger, Philip A. ?Marijuana.? Microsoft Encarta 98 Encyclopedia. CD-ROM. Microsoft Corporation. 1997. Morgan, John P. and Zimmer, Lynn. Marijuana Myths, Marijuana Facts. Sarasota: Book World Services, Inc. 1997. The Science of Medical Marijuana. 21 May 1999. . Thompson, Stephen P., ed. The War on Drugs: Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, Inc., 1998. Webster, Maddy. ?Legalizing Pot: What You Can Do.? High Times. Jan 1999: 30. Weed Wars: Facts and Stats. CNNInteractive. 1997. You Dealing with Chemotherapy. National Cancer Institute, Institute of Health. 28 Jan. 1999. .

The Witching Hour :: essays research papers

The Witching Hour Title: The Witching Hour Author: Anne Rice Copyright Date: 1990 Number of Page Read: 1043 Three main elements classify the genre: Gothic, Mystery, and Romance. I classify Gothic novels as stories pertaining to a dismal atmosphere, such as Edgar Allan Poe's literature. . Lovers who unlock thirteen generation's of Mayfair family secrets and incest; discovering that their intervention becomes a more complex-intertwining destiny. Our Antagonist Michael Curry, a 48-year old Irish man who had lost himself in a world in which he had accomplished his dreams, experienced his emotional pain, and yet he felt empty. Michael approached the rocks of the bay, thought of his life and emptiness, then he slipped and fell to his fatal doom in the sea. Found by a woman known as Rowan Mayfair , he discovered that he was dead for over an hour as he rested in the hospital. Michael also discovered that he had received the gift of seeing images by using his hands to touch objects, and that he chose to come back. He was burdened by the images and the vision after his death, that he had a purpose, that he was sent for a reason. Something that had to do with a doorway, and the number thirteen. After isolation from the press of the burden of his powers, he found himself wanting to go back on the deck of the boat where he was rescued. He wanted to talk to the woman who rescued him, for he thought that she would let him touch the boat to recover images that night. He discovered that this neurosurgeon, Dr. Rowan Mayfair, was the veritable love of his life. After he discovered how much he deeply loved Rowan, he began to reminisce the images of his purpose; that certain elements and images of his childhood hinted him to return to the house he had been fascinated with in New Orleans as a child. Another major character of the story, Englishmen Aaron Lightner, was a part of an archaic organization known as the "Talamasca". Aaron studied a family called the Mayfairs in New Orleans, because his organization had believed the Mayfairs to be witches. He devoted his life to the history of the Mayfair witches, and his organization had compiled a history of the Mayfairs since the days of the 17th century inquisition in Europe. As he watched Michael and Rowan from the corners of darkness, he intervened their lives to enlighten their knowledge of Rowan's family history—and its dangerous potential. Rowan did not know a single thing of her family history, as she was left in the dark her whole life by her aunt

Communication Between Patients And Professionals Health And Social Care Essay

This chapter examines bing surveies on pass oning hazard utilizing different formats, discusses the effectivity, truth and presentation of patient hazards information, peculiarly looking at surveies conducted on communicating with immature patients. 3.4. Hazard Communication – Existing surveies on usage of in writing tools for a/effective hazard communicating. Effective and affectional hazard communicating is of import for both patients and medical professionals and has an impact on decision-making, diagnosing, proving, farther medical intervention and successful recovery. To let people to do an informed determination, peculiarly in footings of hazard, can besides assist to better patient-doctor relationship. It is non merely a affair of content but besides how information is presented. ( Timmermans, Molewijk, Stiggelbout and Kevit 2004 ) . Many surveies have been conducted refering patients ‘ demands in footings of informed picks. ( e. g. Panton, R, 2009, Ulph, F. , 2008, Peters, E. , 2008, Coad, J. , 2007, Price M. , 2007, Paling, J. , 2003, Timmermans, D.R.M. , 2004, 2005, Briss, P. , 2004 O'Connor, A. , 2002, Fischhoff B. , 1999 ) . Paling points out that â€Å" effectual hazard communicating is the footing for informed patient consent for medical intervention, yet until late physicians have lagged behind other professionals in larning this accomplishment † ( Paling, J. , 2003 ) . â€Å" Professionals need to back up patients in doing picks by turning natural information into information that is more helpful to the treatments than the information † ( Edwards, A. , 2002 ) . Encouraged by a figure of research workers wellness professionals late more frequently seek to enable patients to adequately grok the hazard as its apprehension can be important for appropriate decision-making. They are confron ting a scope of obstructions and jobs of different sorts. Effective hazard communicating, says Fischhoff, â€Å" uses audience members ‘ clip good by supplying them with the information that they most need, in a signifier that they can easy grok † . Furthermore, he stresses, that â€Å" carry throughing this undertaking can be difficult because of jobs with both the sender and the receiving system † ( Fischhoff B. , 1999 ) . Communicating hazard is surely non an easy procedure because of its complexness and therefore can be disputing for the wellness professionals. Thun gives a brief overview of chief communicating troubles which American physicians are fighting with ; such as patient ‘s hapless numeracy accomplishments, limited cognition about the causes of malignant neoplastic disease, or hazard of malignant neoplastic disease, and besides jobs with remembering or construing chances ( Thun, M. , J. , 2008 ) . Many different dimensions and built-in uncertainnesss need to be taken into history, says Paling. Recent findings on the perceptual experience of hazards and benefits from a psychological position further perplex the undertaking. † ( Paling, J. , 2003 ) . Paling besides brings out the illustration of Lloyd and co-workers ‘ research, which suggested that â€Å" patients merely pull out the effect of any information-not the detail-to brand determinations † ( Lloyd A, et Al. 2001 ) . Furthermore, most patients ‘ comprehension of hazards is chiefly determined non by informations they receive but by emotions ( Paling, J. , 2003, Timmermans, R.D.M. , 2005, Klein, W. , M. , P. , Stefanek, M. , E. , 2007, Finucane, M.L. , 2008 ) . â€Å" Therefore, although most physicians can readily supply a competent history of the biomedical informations associating to a peculiar hazard, this alone is likely to be unfertile. If the patient ‘s feelings skew an apprehension of the facts, so his or her ability to do nonsubjective determinations about clinical direction will be impaired † ( Paling, J. , 2003 ) . 3.4.2 Using ocular AIDSs for showing chances Paling advises wellness professionals to utilize appropriate ocular AIDSs therefore patients from all backgrounds can understand their accounts. â€Å" Even in developed states significant Numberss of patients have hapless numeracy or literacy accomplishments and are likely to hold trouble understanding the significance of the Numberss that physicians wish to portion. For these people, ocular AIDSs can assist by demoing the Numberss in position. The pie chart ( pioneered by Florence Nightingale, fig. 1 ) is a premier illustration of a simple yet effectual ocular assistance, helpful to people at all academic degrees † ( Paling, J. , 2003 ) . Figure 1. Diagram of the Causes of Mortality in the Army in the East, graphs frequently described as roses, created by Florence Nightingale. As a innovator in set uping the importance of sanitation in infirmaries she aimed to pass on the gathered informations on associating decease tolls in infirmaries to cleanliness in most, as she assumed, effectual manner by utilizing in writing representation, similar to normally used now pie charts. ( www.understandinucerntainty.org/node/213 ) Paling has developed several tools for ‘helping to explicate the hazards of different orders of likeliness ‘ ( figs 2-3 ) . Figure 2. Paling PaletteA © -for exposing most medical hazards with a chance of higher than 1 in 1000. The physician or familial counselor fills in the relevant informations while sitting beside the patient. This format shows the estimations of positive and negative results at the same time and nowadayss unambiguous ocular representations of the chances. The patient may take a printout place for farther consideration, or the signifier may be signed by the patient and a transcript kept on file ( Paling, J. , 2003 ) . The manner physicians communicate hazard can impact a patient ‘s perceptual experience of hazards and hence, as Paling emphasiss that numerical informations should be enhanced with verbal accounts, physicians are supposed to utilize absolute Numberss alternatively utilizing comparative hazards or per centum betterments, he advises besides saying the odds from a positive and negative position and utilizing a consistent denominator. Figure 3. Revised Paling Perspective ScaleA © – for exposing hazards covering widely different orders of magnitude ( Paling, J. , 2003 ) ..O'Connor reexamining present determination AIDSs ; include brochures, tapes, videodisk, synergistic computing machine plans, or paper based charts, sees them as valuable and helpful for presentation and treatment of hazard information with patients. However, as she concludes â€Å" there go on to be excessively few surveies to find the effects of determination AIDSs on continuity with the chosen therapy, costs, or resource usage † and there is a demand for farther rating. ( O'Connor A. , 2009 ) . Timmermans distinguishes three formats for pass oning hazard: verbal footings, a numerical format, and a graphical format. Using artworks is considered to be utile for showing uncertainness. â€Å" When a thing is hard to understand, he says, it seems obvious to utilize artworks to explicate it. Graphical hazard information is assumed to assist persons to understand and sum up hazard information † ( Timmermans, R.D.M. , 2005 ) . However harmonizing to Timmermans surveies there is no important grounds on high quality of graphic over other formats in footings of pass oning hazards. However the presentation of icons was evaluated as really helpful, with indicant that grouped icons might be better than allocated icons. Vertical bars were evaluated as less suited manner to show hazard ( Timmermans, R.D.M. , et Al, 2004 ) . Center for Prenatal Diagnosis of the VU University Medical Center uses icons to explicate the consequences of a screening trial, ( Fig. 5 ) ( Timmermans, R.D.M. , 2005 ) . Similar to Paling Palettes nevertheless, alternatively of impersonal human silhouettes, emoticons were introduced. Smiling faces represent non affected persons whereas black points show the figure of opportunities of being pregnant with a kid with Down ‘s syndrome. Figure 5. Example of the hazard formats: the 1-year mortality hazards of the low-risk patient as presented, severally, in the numerical format, as stacked perpendicular bars and as icons ( indiscriminately located icons ) ( Timmermans, R.D.M. , et Al, 2004 ) . Figure. 6. The left image shows a normal opportunity ( i.e. non increased ) and the right image shows an increased opportunity of being pregnant with a kid with Down ‘s syndrome. ( Timmermans, R.D.M. , 2005 ) Parallel hazard pass oning in writing formats, derived from those designed by Paling, are presented by Edwards. One of them combines numerical informations, graduated table, and linguistic communication informations conveying degrees of increasing hazard ( figure 7 ) ( Edwards, A. , 2002 ) . Figure 7. Hazard linguistic communication proposal, derived from Paling Edwards nowadayss besides Visual Rx, an available online in writing tool, which is designed to assist in the procedure of interlingual rendition of grounds into pattern, the comparative step into an absolute step. And once more emoticons represent human participants, this clip four types of faces differing in facial look and colorss to mean the informations, fig.8. Figure 8. Portrayal of hazards and benefits of intervention with antibiotics for otitis media designed with Visual Rx, a plan that calculates Numberss needed to handle from the pooled consequences of a metaA ­analysis and bring forth a graphical show of the consequence ( Edwards, A. , 2002 ) . For original illustrations visit: www.nntonline.net/visualrx/examples/ Edwards ‘ surveies emphasize that information must be presented clearly. â€Å" Sometimes numerical informations entirely may do. The ocular presentation of hazard information has besides been explored. Some empirical surveies suggest that many patients prefer simple saloon charts to other formats such as thermometer graduated tables, crowd figures ( for illustration, demoing how many of 100 people are affected ) , survival curves, or pie charts ; other surveies have found that people may prefer presentations that lead them to less accurate perceptual experiences of hazard † ( Edwards, A. , 2002 ) . Lipkus and Holland present an overview of in writing formats for pass oning hazard ; they give the illustrations of ocular shows that have been introduced to supply effectual hazard information such as hazard ladder, Chernoff faces, line graphs, points, marbles, pie chart and histogram. Figure 9. Examples of ocular shows that have been used to pass on hazard. Research workers have used the following to exemplify hazard: ( a ) hazard ladder ; ( B ) stick, human, Chernoff faces ; ( degree Celsius ) line graph ; ( vitamin D ) points and Xs in which the Xs represent those affected by the jeopardy ; ( vitamin E ) marbles ; ( degree Fahrenheit ) pie chart ( informations are fabricated ) ; and histogram. Reprinted with permission of writer. ( Lipkus, and Hollands, 1999 ) Figure 10. Example of a Nightingale rose. For each rose, a circle is divided into multiple parts of equal angle ; the radius of each piece is used to picture the measure of involvement. Because the informations for each season are in the same place in each rose, it is easy to compare them. The informations are fictional. ( Lipkus, and Hollands, 1999 ) Figure 11. Example of a hazard ladder conveying the hazards of Rn. Radon degrees are being compared with the figure of coffin nails smoked and the figure of excess malignant neoplastic disease deceases. On the right, the ladder displays an action criterion ( indicating pointer of 4 pCi/L ) , along with advice on how to construe Rn degrees and the action that is required, if any. Reprinted with permission of writer. ( Lipkus, and Hollands, 1999 ) Figure 12. Pie chart developed by the National Cancer Institute and evaluated by focal point groups to picture lung malignant neoplastic disease hazard as a map of smoke and Rn exposure. Reprinted with permission from the National Cancer Institute ( 49 ) . Fig. 13. A graph with a low data-ink ratio. Notice the sum of ink devoted to objects that do non incorporate the information of involvement ( images, busy background, horizontal grid lines, patterned fills on the bars, etc. ) ( Lipkus, and Hollands, 1999 ) . Figure 14. Ibrekk and Morgan ‘s recommended graphical secret plans to pass on quantitative uncertainnesss. This illustration of a cumulative distribution map is plotted straight below the chance denseness map with the same horizontal graduated table and with the location of the mean marked by a point. Reprinted with permission. ( Ibrekk H, Morgan GM, 1987, in Lipkus, and Hollands, 1999 ) Showing these information format illustrations, Lipkus and Holland were on the early phases of their research on how â€Å" supplying ocular shows of malignant neoplastic disease hazard per Se affects hazard perceptual experience, decision-making procedures, and, finally, behavior † . They stressed that due to multidimensionality of hazard, coactions between assorted subjects and organisations are needed. â€Å" Working coaction between experts in human factors, psychological science, sociology, psychophysics, graph perceptual experience, and the mass media is likely to take to more integrative and fresh attacks than research within a individual subject † ( Lipkus and Hollands, 1999 ) . The research indicates a demand to â€Å" determine the extent to which artworks and other visuals heighten the populace ‘s apprehension of disease hazard to ease decision-making and behavioral alteration procedures † ( Lipkus and Hollands, 1999 ) . Anckner and co-workers more late searched for rating surveies of graphs describing, chances, frequences, or opportunities of wellness events that had non been covered in Lipkus and Hollands ‘ reappraisal ( Anckner et al, 2006 ) . They excluded commentaries and instructions covered already by Edwards and co-workers ( Edwards et al. , 2002 ) besides surveies of hurting graduated tables, public-service corporation steps, or illustrations that communicated dainty or insouciant relationships, and surveies in which artworks were non used as an independent variable ( Elwyn et al. , 2004, Schapira et al. , 2000 ) . Harmonizing to the findings the pick of in writing format for hazard communicating depends upon the intent ; different formats should be used for heightening quantitative apprehension or advance good arithmetic judgements, whereas others to advance behavior alteration ( Anckner et al, 2006 ) . Furthermore Anckner points out that â€Å" for good quantitative judgements the size of in writing component should be relative to the figure it portraits † , otherwise people can be more influenced by the size than by the figure. Research showed that part-to-whole saloon charts and part-to-whole consecutive ordered icons arrays can be used to assist viewing audiences grok the mathematical proportion ( Stone et al, 2003, Schirillo et al. , 2005 ) . Furthermore â€Å" this may assist them de-emphasise the emotional content of attach toing text † ( Anckner et al, 2006, Fagerlin A, 2005 ) . With experts and ballad users given some direction, survival curves can be utile for pulling attending to information that is otherwise ignored, such as middle-term results ( Anckner et al, 2006 ) . Patients can separate proportions rather successfully with part-to-whole consecutive icon arrays. However, say Anckner et al. , proportions are hard to measure in indiscriminately arranged i con arrays and perchance besides when the icons are jittered. This could account for the disfavor of random-arrangement arrays found in qualitative surveies ( Feldman-Stewart et al. , 2000 ) â€Å" Therefore, consecutive arranged icon arrays may be better than random 1s in any state of affairs that requires the spectator to gauge a proportion or compare two proportions † ( Anckner et al, 2006 ) . Research workers stressed that extra work may be needed to corroborate the intimation in some surveies that indiscriminately arranged icon arrays help convey the hard construct of opportunity or uncertainness ( Baty et al. , 1997, Witte K. , 1997 ) . Anckner and co-workers found that comparatively few surveies have attempted to show the even more hard construct of uncertainness around a chance estimation ( assurance intervals ) .Therefore pass oning an uncertainness in hazards â€Å" should be a subject for go oning survey, given older findings that laypeople are frequently unfamiliar with the construct of scientific uncertainness † ( Anckner et al, 2006 ) . They besides province that qualitative research is of import to larn more about how patients interpret graphs, nevertheless â€Å" trusting excessively to a great extent on patients ‘ likes and disfavors may present a job because they sometimes like artworks that lead to hapless quantitative judgements † Research workers expect that future research will assist develop artworks that are both acceptable and successful in advancing quantitative judgements or behavioural results ( Anckner et al, 2006 ) . Furthermore they advice to take in history interactions with instruction degree, literacy, numeracy, and civilization, therefore they are of import go oning countries of research. In decision they point out that although graphs frequently seem to be more intuitive than words, the literature shows that graphical literacy is strongly affected by expertness and acquaintance with specific graphical formats. Furthermore the direction might be needed to enable patients to construe certain formats. ( Anckner et al, 2006 ) . A late issued set of guidelines for making patient determination AIDSs recommends the usage of multiple hazard presentation formats ( O'Connor AM, 2007, 2009 ) . This recommendation supports the consequences of research conducted by Dolan ( Dolan J. G. , 2008 ) . Harmonizing to his survey the most preferable was a combined format ( combined augmented saloon chart + flow diagram ) and all three combined formats were more preferable than the three individual format options included in the survey, Fig. 17 ( Dolan J. G. , 2008 ) . Dolan ‘s survey has several restrictions, nevertheless there is a clear suggestion that patients may prefer combined, instead than individual, in writing hazard presentation formats and that augmented saloon charts and icon shows may be utile for conveying comparative information about little hazards to clinical determination shapers. Nevertheless Dolan suggests that farther research to corroborate and widen these findings is needed ( Dolan J. G. , 2008 ) . Whether patient penchants are affected by different coloring material strategies, axis data format, the size of the show, and other design features remains unknown. Figure 15. The augmented saloon chart. The left manus panel is a standard saloon chart demoing the full dataset. The right manus panel magnifies the differences between the two options so the magnitude of the differences can be seen more clearly ( Dolan J. G. , 2008 ) . Figure 16. The augmented icon show. The left manus panel is a standard icon show demoing the full dataset. The right manus panel magnifies the differences between the two options so the magnitude of the differences can be seen more clearly. The ruddy diamonds indicate patients with malignant neoplastic disease, the green diamonds indicate patients without malignant neoplastic disease, and the broken diamond symbol indicates malignant neoplastic diseases prevented through showing and screening-related intercessions ( Dolan J. G. , 2008 ) . Figure 13. The flow diagram. Figure 17. Example penchant comparing screenshot. This figure shows the screen used by the survey subjects to do the comparings among the hazard presentation formats. The skidder used to bespeak their strength of penchant, if any, is shown in the top panel. The magnitude of penchant was indicated in the numeral box to the right and in the linked horizontal saloon charts and pie chart below. The panel in the upper left is the bill of fare screen used to travel from one comparing to the following ( Dolan J. G. , 2008 ) . Most late Lin and co-workers carried on research on showing the hazards of fatal abnormalcy to pregnant adult females as an of import in reding prior to offering antenatal showing trials. Furthermore they province that these hazards must be balanced against the hazards of injury caused by diagnostic probes that frequently means that patients and professionals are faced with hard judgements. Research considered how these ocular presentation tools can be developed to pass on hazard more efficaciously, particularly in the quandary determination doing procedure. Related surveies have revealed that ocular presentation such as artworks ; illustration and images affect perceived hazard, attitude and behaviour. A questionnaire method was applied to this research to measure 9 different formats of dilemma determination devising tools ( Lin, F-S. et Al. 2009 ) . Figure 18. 9 different formats of dilemma state of affairs were developed in this research and all of them were adopted the same information of the hazard for pregnant adult females to gestate babes with Down ‘s syndrome, and the opportunity of amniocentesis doing abortion. Two comparative informations were juxtapose together to see if the quandary state of affairs will impact their picks, including text format, ratio informations format, proportion informations format, histogram format, pie chart format, abstract image format, distinct concrete image format ( the icons are arranged as a block and touching each other ) , consecutive concrete image format ( the icons are non touching each other ) , and a composite format ( Lin, F-S. et Al. 2009 ) . Similarly to old related research, Lin and co-workers found that different ocular tools will impact people ‘s hazard perceptual experience ; nevertheless it would non impact their picks of proving, although there is differentiation consequently to the age groups. The research shows that any instructions provided to people in any clip or any topographic points will all impact their determination devising. When seeking to pass on the intervention options with patients, the research workers advised, take patients ‘ â€Å" life manners, backgrounds, or even the societal phenomena in to consideration to supply balanced value-neutral and most helpful information to them to do appropriate determinations † ( Lin, F-S. et Al. 2009 ) . One of the surveies conducted by Fillingham on ‘best pattern in design for patient information ‘ suggests that â€Å" utilizing statistics, exposures and illustrations are amongst the most popular picks for how participants think hazard should be explained to them. Furthermore, exposure and illustrations allow people to understand and visualize processs explained within the text of a cusp † ( Fillingham, S. , 2008 ) . Figure 19. Hazard perceptual experience piece inspired by Paling Palette ( Fillingham, S. , 2008 ) Fillingham designed a scope of icons for based on the Paling Palettes information sheets. His purpose was to make an educational and synergistic signifier utilizing artworks, icons and illustrations. As an result he produced a chest malignant neoplastic disease hazard game and chest malignant neoplastic disease testing perceptual experience game and besides redesigned hazard informing cusps. Figure 16. Cervical malignant neoplastic disease hazard chart ( Fillingham, S. , 2008 ) Figure 20. Cervical malignant neoplastic disease reply sheet ( Fillingham, S. , 2008 ) Introducing icons-stickers along with a game format made a design more synergistic, which can better patient-doctor relationship by leting the hazard information to flux in both waies ; both participant and doctor can profit from, garnering of import information. Furthermore, as Fillingham suggests this game experience could be more entertaining and enjoyable than reading a text based cusp and therefore the information can be recalled more efficaciously by the participant ( Fillingham, S. , 2008 ) . Importantly, while transporting on his research, Fillingham managed to roll up indispensable informations on sensed hazard every bit good as participants ‘ personal penchant of text or a in writing based medium. The survey shows that patients favoured lighter and brighter colorss over darker colorss, which frequently have negative associations. Therefore the writer recommended usage of these lighter colorss within hazard cusps for positive associations. Furthermore color informations collected shows that light blue, pink and yellow were amongst the most popular/favourite colorss chosen by participants ( Fillingham, S. , 2008 ) . [ More about coloring material and artworks analysis in chapter 4 ] A survey conducted by Panton in her research looks at hazard information provided to parents of kids with malignant neoplastic disease. ( eCancerCare system, DePICT Roadmap cards, fig. 21, 22 ) . Parents are frequently confronted with inexplicable, complex information that is severely designed to efficaciously pass on multiple intervention options, hazards, and outcomes. Therefore â€Å" a clear apprehension of hazard is peculiarly of import in these treatments, and necessary for to the full informed consent to accomplish optimum patient attention † ( Panton, R. , 2009 ) . Figure 21. eCancerCare is a system of point-of-care disease-specific databases that ‘dock ‘ with the standard electronic medical record to supply inside informations non available in the institutional record: ( a ) Individual patient informations are viewed under checks that accommodate the demands of each disease site, designed by the site group squad. For illustration, eCancerCareRB incorporates retinal drawings and digital images that provide elaborate information on intraocular tumors. ( B ) DePICT provides a graphical representation of each oculus, bespeaking the badness of disease at diagnosing ( Group D in each oculus in this instance ) with symbols bespeaking the interventions delivered ( Panton, R. , 2009 ) . Figure 22. Legend and DePICT Roadmap cards stand foring interventions over 5 old ages after initial diagnosing for nine eyes showing with the same badness of intraocular retinoblastoma for Groups A to E of the International Intraocular Retinoblastoma Classification ( Panton, R. , 2009 ) . Panton ‘s surveies shows that â€Å" understanding hazard is related to parent age, with older parents averaging higher tonss, irrespective of instruction attainment or first linguistic communication. Our consequences, says Panton, may besides connote that parental apprehension of hazard is related to their bid of the linguistic communication used by the clinician † ( Panton, R. , 2009 ) . 3.4.3 Communicating hazard to children/young patients. Health professionals make an effort to affect kids in the determination devising procedure and supply both verbal and written information. The bulk of wellness information is designed by grownups and is in the signifier of cusps. There is no grounds whether such information is appropriate for kids. Furthermore there is still excessively little figure of surveies refering ocular hazard information addressed to kids. Which format of information is most suited for immature patients to pass on hazard? Can they comprehend hazard every bit to grownups ; does their response to the formats differ? The survey of hazardous decision-making have been comparatively rare, nevertheless several research workers have approached this complex topic and managed to develop, suited for childs, undertakings, which aim to capture developmental tendencies in hazardous decision-making procedure ( e. g. Harbaugh et al. , 2002, Reyna, V. F. , & A ; Ellis, S. C. , 1994, Schlottmann, 2000, 2001 ) . One of these conducted by Schlottmann purposes to find â€Å" kids ‘s scheme for measuring complex gambles with alternate awards for alternate results † ( Schlottmann A. , 2001 ) . To happen the winning result, a marble is shaken in a clear tubing inset with a bicolour strip. Probability is manipulated by changing the figure of little or really big awards that could be won on one result ( 1 or 10 crayons on yellow ) , while the other result carried intermediate awards ( 3 or 6 crayons on blue ) . Children judged how happy a marionette would be to play the game, the judgement taken as a step of Expected Value, fig. 23 ( Schlottmann A. , 2001 ) . Figure 23. Conventional of two sample games. A marble could set down on either tubing section, and the marionette would win the award placed by that section. The two games illustrate that the same physical cue has different significance in the context of different games: In the top illustration, the one unit xanthous section represents.2 chance, in the bottom illustration.5. In the top illustration, the six crayon award for bluish makes it the higher value, hazardous option, but in the bottom illustration this is the lower value certain thing. ( Schlottmann, A. , 2001 ) The survey found that ‘all age groups ( 6 old ages old, 9 old ages old and grownups ) used similar intuitive operations ‘ . The writer suggests that there is similar intuitive potency for the instruction of judgment/ determination in kids and grownups ( Schlottmann A. , 2001 ) . This survey does non include hazard factor, which can significantly impact chance perceptual experience. Levin and Hart ( Levin et al. , 2003, 2007 ) addressed the inquiry about the age that kids should be provided with the hazard information at and when they become capable to grok hazard information, and chance issues in peculiar. Research workers used cups ‘ undertaking game where chance is conveyed by the figure of cups from which choose. The research found that 6-year-old kids make their determinations on the footing of both chance and result information, nevertheless they made more hazardous picks than grownups ( they parents ) . On the footing of old surveies current writers ( Levin et al. , 2007 ) and others ( e. g. Harbaugh et al. , 2002, Reyna, V. F. , & A ; Ellis, S. C. , 1994, Schlottmann, A. , & A ; Tring J. , 2007 ) concluded that immature kids possess the basic apprehension and the ability to see both chance and outcome information in footings of hazard associated decision-making procedure. Furthermore they anticipate that future research will be able to â€Å" track how different phases of impersonal development individually impact the emotional and cognitive constituents of adaptative determination devising † ( Levin et al. , 2007 ) . Latest surveies by Figner and co-workers seem to corroborate that there is still a deficiency of indispensable research looking into â€Å" the mechanism underlying developmental differences in hazardous determination devising † , there is still non plenty informations on single differences in hazard pickings, such as trust on affective/deliberative schemes and information usage which could take this procedure ( Figner et al. , 2009 ) . Ulph and co-workers carried on research to happen out how hazard should be communicated to kids, comparing different formats of chance information. Similarly to earlier research workers ( Levin et al. , 2007 ) , she used cup game test to analyze child ability to grok complex hazard information fig. 24 ( a, B, degree Celsius ) . â€Å" In each test the kid was asked to choose the cup which was most likely to hold a ball underneath it based on the chance provided under each cup. The kids were asked if they recognised each format and whether they required an account † ( Ulph F. , Townsend E. , Glazebrook C. , 2009 ) . If the kid selected the cup with the highest chance depicted below it the kid was given one point. The survey showed that there was a important relationship between format and comprehension tonss and kids performed significantly better when chance was presented as a pie chart, in comparing to per centums, proportion – notation, proportion-word and assorted format tests. Furthermore, most kids ( 84 % ) got all tests correct for this format and kids were significantly more certain that their response was r ight in the pie chart tests compared to all the other formats ( P & lt ; 0.001 ) † ( Ulph F. , Townsend E. , Glazebrook C. , 2009 ) . Figure 24a. Illustration of one cup game test ( Ulph F. , Townsend E. , Glazebrook C. , 2009 ) Figure 24b. Illustration of a pie chart format test in which the visible radiation subdivision indicates the likeliness of the ball being under that cup. ( Ulph F. , Townsend E. , Glazebrook C. , 2009 ) . Figure 24c Illustration of assorted format test ( Ulph F. , Townsend E. , Glazebrook C. , 2009 ) . The consequences of Fiona Ulph and co-workers ‘ surveies suggest â€Å" that 7-11 twelvemonth olds can understand chance information, but that the format used will significantly impact the truth and assurance with which kids in this age group make opinions about the likeliness of an event. Of the formats studied, pie charts appear to be the optimum method of showing probabilistic information to kids in this age group † . She concludes that wellness professionals and interior decorators of wellness messages should be cognizant of this when pass oning medical information to kids aged 7-11 old ages old ( Ulph F. , Townsend E. , Glazebrook C. , 2009 ) . Figner and co-workers investigated hazard taking and underlying information usage in 13- to 16- and 17- to 19-years-old striplings and grownups, utilizing a fresh dynamic risk-taking undertaking, the Columbia Card Task ( CCT ) , fig. 25 ( Figner et al. , 2009 ) . They used digital based tests of hazardous cart game ; smileys ( emoticons ) mark the successfully exposed cards. Figure 25. Screenshots of the hot ( left panel ) and cold ( right panel ) Columbia Card Task ( Figner et al. , 2009 ) . As shown in Figure 25, both the hot and the cold versions of the CCT involve 32 cards, displayed in four rows of 8 cards each. At the beginning of each test, all cards are shown face down. The regulations of the game are as follows: Within a given test, cards can be turned over every bit long as addition cards are encountered. Each addition card adds a specified addition sum to the test final payment, and the participant can voluntarily halt the test at any point and claim the obtained final payment. Equally shortly as a loss card is encountered, the test terminates ; that is, no more cards can be turned over and a specified loss sum is subtracted from the old final payment. The top of the screen displays the undermentioned information for a given test: figure of concealed loss cards ( out of 32 ) , sum of addition per addition card, sum of loss, and current test figure. A full factorial within-subject design varied the three game parametric quantities or factors between tests: ( a ) chance of a loss ( 1, 2, or 3 loss cards ) , ( B ) addition sum ( 10, 20, or 30 points per addition card ) , and ( degree Celsius ) loss sum ( 250, 500, or 750 points ) . Showing each of the 27 combinations of factor degrees twice resulted in 54 tests, with the tests indiscriminately ordered within each of the two blocks of 27 tests ( Figner et al. , 2009 ) . The research showed that there is no important difference in footings of doing picks in cold ( more deliberative ) or hot ( affectional ) quandary state of affairss, they seem to react every bit. Furthermore, as observed in this survey â€Å" hazard pickings occurs when the urge from the affectional system overrides deliberative urges to avoid hazard † and besides relaying excessively much on deliberation can take to â€Å" increased hazard taking in striplings in state of affairss in which grownups would ne'er of all time see the pros and cons but instinctively would avoid a hazard because of strong fright response † ( Figner et al. , 2009 ) . As it was mentioned before Figner hopes that farther research will convey more information on childhood, adolescence and maturity hazard perceptual experience and its developmental passages. 3.4.4 Decision Harmonizing to bing surveies different ocular tools can impact people ‘s hazard perceptual experience, nevertheless how people perceived hazards would non impact their picks, the determination doing procedure can differ harmonizing to age groups. Therefore developing in writing format for hazard communicating we need to take into history patients age, literacy degree, their life manners, backgrounds, or single penchants to supply most comprehensive and accessible information to help them to doing appropriate determinations. Thus multidimensionality of hazard requires coactions between assorted subjects and administrations. All research workers urge that farther research is needed and anticipate that country of ocular hazard communicating for doing informed picks will go on to spread out and develop..